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| c. 1480 |
| | | Leonardo da Vinci takes a professional interest in the new science of fortification | |
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| c. 1489 |
| | | Leonardo da Vinci begins an unprecedented series of detailed anatomical drawings, based on corpses dissected in Rome | |
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| c. 1500 |
| | | Leonardo argues that fossils in rocks far above the sea imply not the effects of the Flood but a change in the level of an ancient sea bed | |
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| 1530 |
| | | German botanist Otto Brunfels publishes Living images of plants, the first serious work of natural history with printed illustrations | |
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| 1543 |
| | | Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus publishes a book suggesting that the earth moves round the sun | |
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| 1543 |
| | | Flemish anatomist Andreas Vesalius publishes a seven-volume work which for the first time lays bare human anatomy | |
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| 1545 |
| | | Ambroise Paré, the greatest surgeon of his day, publishes an account of how to treat gunshot wounds | |
|  | Artificial hand designed by Ambroise Paré
Wellcome Library, London
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| 1560 |
| | | Tobacco is grown in Europe's physic gardens for its medicinal qualities | |
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| c. 1576 |
| | | Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe builds Uraniborg, on the island of Hven, and makes it the world's leading observatory | |
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| 1582 |
| | | The new and more accurate Gregorian calendar is introduced by Gregory XIII in the papal states | |
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